Assistive Technology and Inclusion
Terence W. Cavanaugh Ph.D
College of Education and
Human Services, University of North Florida, USA
tcavanau@unf.edu
Abstract: The student population makeup and laws concerning education, inclusion and special needs students, such as IDEA are changing the makeup, structure and design of the “standard” classroom, as teachers are today likely to have students from a variety of programs. Teacher preparation programs need to ensure that candidates are educated in special needs pedagogy and assistive technologies (AT) as they relate to general education. An analysis found that six areas of AT were found to highly relate to standard classroom practices. To meet current teacher preparation guidelines from accrediting agencies, technology organizations, and professional subject area organizations additional education including AT should be included in common methods and technology courses. Sample analysis for AT in methods courses and instructional technology programs finds only 10-20% inclusion. A model program, with is being tried, is discussed to include AT in technology and common methods courses.
Assistive Technology and Inclusion
Assistive technology is “…any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities…” 20 U.S.C. 1401 (33)(250)
Assistive technology (AT) devices can decrease students’ isolation and allow them to become part of regular subject area classrooms. Assistive technology then becomes a tool that provides a method for an individual who is experiencing a disability or other issue to still participate in a classroom. The application of assistive technology in schools for students classified as having a disability is required through laws such as Individual with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). As the inclusive education of all students occurs more frequently within the standard classroom, then it becomes important that the knowledge/experience base for all teachers needs to be expanded to incorporate assistive technology approaches and accommodations. The changes in the student population of special needs students, such as students with disabilities and language issues, that have occurred in schools in recent years are having a major impact of changing the learning goals, the teaching methods, and the means of assessment for all students. Teachers today, more than ever before, are teaching more students with special needs, such as students with physical or learning disability, emotional disabilities and English as second language students. These teachers working with these populations are not just the special education or special English language acquisition teachers, instead more and more of these students are placed in the general student population with regular teachers. Teacher preparation programs then need to ensure that teachers are educated in special needs pedagogy and assistive technologies as they relate to general education. The educational environment needs to be designed or adapted for all students have the opportunity for success, even those students who may need modifications and accommodations.
Changing Student Population
Across the United State and in many other countries, the percentage of special needs students served in an inclusive setting along with non-disabled students is rising. As educational professionals teachers are charged by law to make accommodations to the process of education to allow all the students access to the educational situation. In the U.S. at the K12 level, these accommodations usually take place as part of a student’s IEP (Individual Education Plan). Educators must be able to adapt, make accommodations, or adjust the educational material to make it work for the student, allowing them access to the materials.
Because of the size and growth of numbers of students classified as special needs students, assistive educational technology in schools is also growing in importance. Special needs students are now having a greater impact on the general education teacher as, during the past 10 years, the percentage of students with disabilities served in schools and classes with their nondisabled peers has gradually increased. In the 1997-98 school year, US states reported that between 94.7 and 97.8 percent of students (depending on age) with disability were served in schools with their nondisabled peers as compared to just four years before when only 43.4 percent were included. As the percentage of special needs students served in an inclusive setting along with nondisabled students rises, the number of special education and regular education teachers prepared to provide an inclusive environment must also increase (US Dept. of Education 2000, US Dept. of Education 1996).
This issues of special needs is not only focused on students with disabilities, but also must include students to whom English is a second language, the ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages), ESL (English as a Second Language), or LEP (Limited English Proficient) student. Currently forty-two percent of all public school teachers have at least one ESOL/ESL/LEP student in their classes (NCES 2002). Nationally, the number of students enrolling in school ESOL programs has increased steadily in recent years increasing 109% from 1985 to 1995 (TESOL Pressroom 1997), as an example, in Florida along between the 98 and 99 school year the ESOL population served by the school system increased from 143,000 to 168,000 (Hoffman 2002; 2000). Compounding the educational effect on this growing population is that only thirty percent of public school teachers instructing ESOL students have received training for teaching ESOL students, and fewer than 3 percent of teachers with ESOL students have earned a degree in ESL or bilingual education (NCES 2002).
Assistive Technology the Law and Inclusion
The inclusion classroom is based upon teaching students with disabilities in regular classrooms, rather than in special schools, classrooms or pull-out locations. . Lipsky and Gartner (1996) define inclusion as "the provision of services to students with disabilities, including those with severe impairments, in the neighborhood school, in age-appropriate general education classes, with the necessary support services and supplementary aids (for the child or the teacher) both to assure the child's success - academic, behavioral, and social - and to prepare the child to participate as a full and contributing member of the society." Supported by court decisions, inclusion has been increasingly defined through lawsuits brought by parents of disabled children around the country. In an exemplifying case, Oberti vs. Board of Education of the Borough of Clementon School District, the federal judge who decided the outcome of the case endorsed full inclusion. The judge stated, "Inclusion is a right, not a special privilege for a select few." This judgment, he said, was based his interpretation of the federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which calls for serving children with disabilities in the least restrictive environment, and on Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, which guarantees disabled people access to services provided by any entity that receives federal funding. (Education Week, 2001)
Federal support for special education in the U.S. dates back to 1975. In that year, Congress passed Public Law 94-142, The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA), this law is desinge to ensure equal access by children with disabilities, ages five through twenty-one, to publicly funded educational opportunities and programs, which previsouly many students who had disabilities had been excluded from. In 1986, Public Law 99-457 reauthorized the EHA, and changed its name to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and its 1997 amendments make it a requirement that schools educate children who have disabilities, in general education classrooms whenever possible. With this charge is also a requirement that all students classified as having any form of disability have an individual education plan (IEP) developed specifically for that student. The IEP will be developed by a team of people including teachers, administrators, counselors, parents, outside experts (as needed), and often the student. As part of the federal IDEA amendments, there are statements that now require assistive technology devices and services to be considered on an individualized basis and become a part of the individual education plan if the child needs the assistive technology or services to benefit from his educational program.
The IDEA regulation states: "Each State must establish procedures to assure that, to the maximum extent appropriate, children with disabilities ... are educated with children who are not disabled, and that special education, separate schooling, or other removal of children with disabilities from the regular educational environment occurs only when the nature or severity of the disability is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily." 20 U.S.C. 1412(5)(B).
With the growing focus to address the needs of all students, including those with disabilities, inclusion is a component of school restructuring agendas (McGregor & Vogelsbert, 1998). The inclusion model of students of varying abilities within a classroom has become the current education classroom standard. Because of this state of inclusion it become important that all teachers, not just the special education or ESOL teachers, have a need be trained and prepared for the inclusion of special needs students in their general education population Today’s teachers must be prepared to adapt instruction for an individual by changing one or more aspects of the material being taught, such as the method, amount, evaluation, assistance, environment, and material. (Beninghof & Singer, 1995).
Individualized Education Plan
From the IDEA law, certain individuals must be involved in writing a child's Individualized Education Program. Each IEP team member brings important information to the meeting (see Figure 1). Members share their information and work together to write the child's Individualized Education Program. Typically a standard IEP team will be composed of parents, teachers, both regular and special education, other focused individuals and possible the student. As every teacher with a student who has an IEP is supposed to participate in the IEP process, it is important that all teachers have at least a general knowledge of strategies and assistive technology that could be applied to their subject area teaching.
Individualized Education Program. The term ‘individualized education program’ or ‘IEP’ means a written statement for each child with a disability that is developed, reviewed, and revised in accordance with this section. 20 U.S.C. 1414 (d)(1)(A), [IDEA, 1997]
The Individualized Education Plan or IEP is a very important document for children how have been identified as having a disability and for those who teachers are involved in educating them. One of the purposes of the student's IEP is to describe how the educational program that has been designed to meet that child's unique needs and determine what assistive technologies and/or services are needed for the student to effectively operate. Both the Tech Act and IDEA have had impacts on the placement and assistance of students with disabilities. IDEA amendments require assistive technology devices and services to be considered on an individualized basis and to become a part of the individual education plan. IDEA statements concerning the need and application of assistive technology require that the IEP team ask a series of questions about assistive technology devices and/or services in relation to student success:
- Will assistive technology enable the student to meet the goals set for the education program that cannot be met because of his/her disability?
- Does the student need assistive technology to be involved in the general curriculum, including participation in state and district wide assessments?
- Does the student need assistive technology for augmentative communication?
- Does the student need to use the device at home or in the community to achieve the goals of the IEP?
If the answer to any of the questions is yes, then the team must ensure that the needed assistive technology devices and/or services are made available to the student (Florida Department of Education 2000). In an IEP team evaluation, as the team considers the application of assistive technology for the student, teacher need at least an awareness of assistive technology so the options can be considered or experts sought. Note also how question number two relate to the student participating in the general curriculum, ideally with the general student population. Based upon the national accreditation requirements and international teacher technology standards, it would be reasonable for a school administrator to expect that education graduates from accredited programs would be able to effectively participate on a student’s IEP team. These expectations would presuppose that such an education graduate would have the content knowledge to be able to make effective judgments and recommendations concerning assistive technology.
Figure 1:
The Members of a student’s IEP team.
Source: Florida Department of Education, (2000). Developing Quality
Individual Education Plans: A Guide for Instructional Personnel and Families
Assistive Technology and Classroom Applications
Assistive technology has the capacity for increasing student independence, increasing participation in classroom activities and simultaneously advancing academic standing for students with special needs, providing them the ability to have equal access to their school environment. Assistive technology is often discussed by technology levels as being high-, middle-, or low-tech. A low-tech assistive technology option is usually easy to use, has low cost (under $200 US), and typically does not require a power source. Mid-tech assistive devices are also easy to operate but typically require a power source. The high-tech device is usually complex and programmable, and usually includes items that require computers, electronics or microchips to perform a function. An example of the application of technology could range from having a voice input word processor (high tech) to a student using an adapted pencil grip (low tech) to assist during writing (ATEN, 2002). Another view of assistive technology focuses on the levels in applying the assistive technology personally, developmentally, or instructionally necessary (Judd-Wall 1999). Of these three the most important to the general teacher is instructionally necessary level. The personally necessary level is concerned with assistive technology devices that are for the use of an individual student, and the suggestion and evaluation of such devices are left to experts. Developmentally necessary assistive devices can be shared among individuals. These devices help meet an educational need based on a developmental delay, which ideally would be improved, thereby eliminating the need for the item in an individual’s future. The instructionally necessary devices are the devices that assist in the instructional process at a course or grade level, and this level has important implications for the standard classroom teacher. The a modification or technology applications would not need to accompany the student as he or she progresses to the next course or academic level, and instead the assistive technology device could remain at the course or grade level’s teacher.
An analysis was completed of the categories of assistive technology concerning uses or applications as identified by organizations such as Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology Society of North America (RESNA, 2000), Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST), Assistive Technology Education Network (ATEN), and others. The resulting compiled list contained fourteen different major application areas for assistive technology. While all fourteen areas could apply in some way to the educational setting only six directly apply to common educational activities, and as such teachers will need knowledge of the assistive technology options as they relate to his/her own teaching of students with special needs (see Table 1). These six areas are concerned with the common student activities which students do on a regular basis, and include learning and studying, reading, writing, mathematics, and computer access. (See end of paper for example assistive technologies for each educational category.) Assistive Educational Technology (AET) is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources that are used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals, with or without disabilities, for learning (Cavanaugh, 2000). The distinction between assistive technologies and general educational technologies is becoming less clear as the concept of universal design is incorporated into more and more conventional technologies. Most of the assistive technologies within the six areas as identified for common classroom applications are excellent examples of assistive educational technologies, which also indicates their importance in universal design..
|
Assistive Technologies that Apply to Classroom Teachers |
Assistive Technologies that Apply to Assistive Technology Experts |
|
|
|
|
Table 1: Comparison of assistive technologies knowledge areas for general teachers and AT specialists.
Assistive Technology Inclusion in the Teacher Preparation Program
Because of laws like the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA 1992) which require that schools educate children who have disabilities in general education classrooms whenever possible, and that assistive technology devices and services to be considered, current and upcoming teachers are in need of additional instruction concerning assistive technologies. Teacher education programs are encouraged to change to include the concepts of inclusion through their accreditation agencies, such as Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) and National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). In NCATE’s (2002) latest set of unit (college) standards, as part of the vision for professional teachers for the 21st Century qualified teachers should teach every child. The standards also state that new teacher graduates should be able to “apply effective methods of teaching students who are at different developmental stages, have different learning styles, and come from diverse backgrounds.” INTASC states, in its Model Standards for Beginning Teacher Licensing, that teachers should “know about areas of exceptionality in learning--including learning disabilities, visual and perceptual difficulties, and special physical or mental challenges” (1992). A commitment to technology is also needed to ensure that all teacher candidates are able to use educational technologies to help all students learn. NCATE and INTASC both expect teacher candidates to “understand language acquisition; cultural influences on learning; exceptionalities; diversity of student populations, families, and communities; and inclusion and equity in classrooms and schools” (NCATE 2002). Based upon this knowledge general teacher education programs should be designed to include content related to inclusion concepts, including assistive technology.
Content area professional organizations, from the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE 2001) to the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA 1995) have standards for all teachers and administrators regarding assistive technology. The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) has statements that require assistive technology be addressed within teacher education programs via the ISTE teacher technology standards which include (II) Planning and Designing Learning Environments and Experiences and (VI) Social, Ethical, Legal, and Human Issues. To meet these standards teachers should have the ability to plan and design effective learning environments and experiences supported by technology. Additionally teachers must be able to design developmentally appropriate learning opportunities that apply technology-enhanced instructional strategies to support the diverse needs of learners. Teachers must also understand the social, ethical, legal, and human issues surrounding the use of technology in PreK-12 schools and apply those principles in practice. For this standard, teachers should apply technology resources, including assistive technologies, to enable and empower learners with diverse backgrounds, characteristics, and abilities in order to facilitate equitable access to technology resources for all students (ISTE, 2000). NSTA requires that “teachers of science must develop understanding of how students with different backgrounds, experiences, motivations, learning styles, abilities, and interests learn science” and that “all students, regardless of sex, cultural or ethnic background, physical or learning disabilities” should be provided the opportunity for content area success (NSTA 1996).
In an analysis of a random sample of methods courses syllabi available online, only two out of twenty syllabi mentioned assistive technologies. Specifically the two program syllabi that included assistive technologies as course topics were reading and special education, other methods course including physical education, science, social studies, language arts, mathematics, and fine arts did not include such technology applications with the listed course topics or objectives. A review was also conducted focusing on instructional technology programs within the colleges of education across a large state university system. The analysis of the published programs of study indicated that at no state college of education was there a course focusing on assistive technology in its title or available description. A similar limited review was conducted of universities nationwide that offered graduate programs in educational or instructional technology. This survey found that fewer than 20% of the colleges provide courses where assistive technology was included as part of their educational technology degree.
Proposed Assistive Technology Integration Model
To better prepare qualified teachers who can work with diverse populations, preservice education programs need to include assistive technology instruction. Because of legislation concerning individualized education plans (IEP) and the growing awareness of the actual size of the population of disabled persons, current and future teachers need more experience with issues related to people with disabilities, including assistive technology. Assistive technology strategies can provide access to curriculum and information in a variety of formats to meet the learning needs of students with a broad range of abilities. These assistive technology devices can be used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.
To fill this knowledge gap there is a need to expand the number of courses that students are exposed to assistive technology as it applies to curriculum. General inclusion concepts and strategies could be taught throughout the core required and content method classes. These courses should include educational methods, teacher planning, reading and literacy, and instructional technology. Many colleges of education now require or encourage their students to take an introductory or survey course in educational technology or computer applications, this course would be ideal to add the general concepts of assistive technology and the educational assistive technology area of computer access. Course topics for instructional technology could include: basics of assistive technology; legal/ethical issues associated with assistive technology; assistive technology and the individual education plan (IEP); levels of assistive technology; technology adaptations; Windows and Macintosh built-in accessibility tools and universal accessibility. The other teaching methods courses could then include instruction and activities focusing on the assistive technology educational areas which assist with particular subject area aspects or ways that assistive technology tools that can assist students in becoming successful with the given curriculum.
Sample Preservice Program
A midsize university’s college of education is endeavoring to include the assistive technologies and universal access into the curriculum for all future teachers. To achieve this goal educators need to be aware of scaffolding tools and materials that educators need for guidance and reference to develop an understanding of how to effectively integrate technology into the teaching of special needs students. Currently the general concepts of assistive technology, and specifically that of computer access are included in the introductory educational technology course. In addition to the teacher technology course, preservice teachers are also instructed in assistive technologies during other courses including an ESOL course that all students must take, where the assistive technologies presented are more focused on educational applications, and a special education course. The goal of the instruction is to improve the skills of teachers to effectively integrate assistive technology applications into standards-based lessons for improved student achievement with a focus on special needs student, both ESE and ESOL.
The Future of Education
The exceptional education teachers are not the only ones who need awareness of assistive technology, all teachers are now likely to encounter mainstreamed special needs students, and the purpose for using the technology ideally is to allow and support the student in the general student population. As the education of all students occurs more frequently within the standard classroom in the inclusion environment, the concepts of teaching and learning that incorporate assistive technology approaches and accommodations become more important. An added benefit of integrating assistive technologies is that the tools can also make information and resources more available even to those who don’t have a disability or have not yet been identified as having a disability. In order for the learning, language and technology gaps to be closed, teachers of special needs children need effective integration methods along with expanded access to technology equipment and resources for the specific needs of their students.
Assistive technology provides an educational resource that must be considered for any student classified with a disability and must be included on that student’s individual education plan (IEP). Current and future teachers then "..need to be focused on classroom-wide and building wide contexts, reflecting an alignment within special education as well as between special and general education" (McGregor & Vogelsbert, 1998). General teacher education programs then need to evaluate themselves and redesign their programs to include content for those teachers concerning special education methodology and pedagogy along with student modifications, accommodations, and assistive technology.
It is important for classroom teachers to have at least a base knowledge of options for assistive technology devices and educational strategies to ensure that all students, including those with disabilities and second language issue, have full access to learning.
References
ATEN - Assistive Technology Education Network (2002). Assistive Technology, Unlocking Human Potential. Seminole County Public Schools.
Beninghof, A. M., & Singer, A. L. (1995). Ideas for inclusion. The school administrator's guide. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
CAST - Center for Applied Special Technology (1998). Universal Design for Learning Consortium Envisions Improved Outcomes for Children. Retrieved from: http://www.cast.org/udl/index.cfm?i=435 .
Cavanaugh, T. (2000). Assistive Technology and its Relationship with Instructional/Educational Technology. Retrieved from: http://www.unf.edu/~tcavanau/research/aet/index.htm .
Education Week (2001). Inclusion. Education Week: Hot Topics. Retrieved from: http://www.edweek.org/context/topics/issuespage.cfm?id=47 .
Florida Department of Education, (2000). Developing Quality Individual Education Plans: A guide for Instructional Personnel and Families. Tallahassee, FL, author.
Hoffman, L. (2000) Overview of Public Elementary and Secondary Schools and Districts: School Year 1999-1999. Education Statistics Quarterly. Online at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2000/quarterly/summer/2feat/q2-5.html#Table-7
Hoffman, L. (2002). Overview of Public Elementary and Secondary Schools and Districts: School Year 1999-2000. Education Statistics Quarterly. Online at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/quarterly/fall/q3-5.asp .
IDEA - Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1992). Pub. L. No. 101-476. Retrieved from: http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=105_cong_public_la
INTASC - Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (1992). Model Standards for Beginning Teacher licensing and Development: A Resource for State Dialogue. Retrieved from:http://www.ccsso.org/intascst.html .
ISTE - International Society for Technology in Education (2000). Teacher technology standards Retrieved from: http://www.iste.org/
Judd-Wall, J. (Last accessed September 1999). Necessary categorizations. Retrieved from: http://www.aten.scps.k12.fl.us/ .
Lipsky, D. K., & Gartner, A. (1996). Inclusion, school restructuring, and the remaking of American society. Harvard Educational Review, 66(4), 763.
McGregor, G., Vogelsberg, R. T. (1998). Inclusive Schooling Practices: Pedagogical and Research Foundations: A Synthesis of the Literature that Informs Best Practices about Inclusive Schooling. Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc.
NCATE - National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (2002). Professional Standards for the Accreditation of Schools, Colleges, and Departments of Education 2002 edition. Retrieved from: http://www.ncate.org/2000/unit_stnds_2002.pdf .
NCES (National Center for Educational Statistics). (2002). NECS Fast Facts on Bilingual education / Limited English Proficient students. Available online at http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=96 .
NSTA – National Science Teacher Association (1996). National Science Education Standards. Retrieved from http://www.nsta.org/standards .
RESNA - Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology Society of North America (2000). Assistive Technology Categories. Retrieved from: http://www.resna.org/.
TESOL Press Room (1997). Jose, Tran, and Mwasa Can Read! New ESL Content Standards Show Teachers How To Ensure Success For All Students. Online at http://www.tesol.org/assoc/articles/9706-eslstandards.html .
U.S. Department of Education (1996). To assure the free appropriate public education of all children with disabilities. Eighteenth annual report to Congress on the implementation of IDEA. Washington, DC: author. Retrieved from:http://www.ed.gov/pubs/OSEP96AnlRpt/ .
U.S. Department of Education (2000). To assure the free appropriate public education of all children with disabilities. Twenty second annual report to Congress on the implementation of IDEA. Washington, DC: author. Retrieved from:http://www.ed.gov/offices/OSERS/OSEP/Products/OSEP2000AnlRpt/index.html .
US Federal Register (1994). Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act Amendments, 1994. (P.L. 103-218). Retrieved from: http://www.section508.gov/ .
US Federal Register (1997). Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act, 1988. (PL 100-407). Retrieved from: http://www.resna.org/taproject/library/laws/techact94.htm .