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Journal = of=20 Personality and Social Psychology	=A9 1990 by = the American=20 Psychological Association, Inc.
June 1990 = Vol. 58,=20 No. 6, 975-983	For personal use only--not for = distribution.=20

Social Reference Points and Accessibility of Trait-Related = Information=20 in Self=97Other Similarity Judgments =

Jerzy J.=20 Karylowski
University of North Florida =
ABSTRACT

Two experiments examined latencies of self-other = similarity=20 judgments. The judgments were obtained for traits for which self was=20 prototypical, other was prototypical, or neither was prototypical. Two = question types used were as follows: self-as-referent questions ("How = similar=20 is X to you...?") and other-as-referent questions ("How similar are = you to=20 X...?"). Judgments were faster for self-prototypical traits than for=20 neither-prototypical traits regardless of the question form. Judgments = for=20 other-prototypical traits were faster than judgments for = neither-prototypical=20 traits in the case of the other-as-referent questions, but not in the = case of=20 self-as-referent questions. Results support the notion that both self = and=20 representations of specific others serve as habitual reference points. = However, they also suggest that, compared to other social prototypes, = self is=20 a more rigid reference point, which is not easily affected by = linguistic=20 factors.

There is a growing consensus that self-knowledge is highly organized = both=20 internally and in terms of its links with other cognitive systems (see = Hig= gins=20 & Bargh, 1987 ; Ki= hlstrom=20 et al., 1988 ; Ma= rkus=20 & Wurf, 1987 ; Sh= erman,=20 Judd, & Park, 1989 , for recent reviews). For instance, it has = been=20 proposed that self functions as a cognitive prototype ( Ku= iper,=20 1981 ; Ku= iper=20 & Derry, 1981 ; Ro= gers,=20 1981 ; Ro= gers,=20 Kuiper, & Kirker, 1977 ; Ro= gers,=20 Rogers, & Kuiper, 1979 ). One indication of involvement of a = cognitive=20 prototype is that highly prototypical items=96that is, items that are = the most=20 strongly associated with the category=96are more accessible than items = that occupy=20 a less prominent position ( Ro= sch, 1978=20 ; Ro= sch,=20 Simpson, & Miller, 1976 ). Thus, it follows that if self is a = cognitive=20 prototype, then self-referent decisions should be faster for traits that = were=20 independently assessed as highly self-prototypical. This prediction is=20 consistent with results obtained in a number of studies ( Ku= iper,=20 1981 ; Mu= eller,=20 Thompson, & Dugan, 1986 ; Ro= gers,=20 1974 , 19= 78 )=20 that found self-referent judgments involving highly self-descriptive = traits to=20 be faster than similar judgments involving traits that were only = moderately=20 self-descriptive. Other evidence cited by Ku= iper and=20 Derry (1981) and Ro= gers=20 (1981) for the prototypical nature of the self includes the = self-reference=20 effect (increased memory for self-referent stimuli) and the falsealarms = effect=20 (intrusion of highly self-descriptive adjectives into an irrelevant = recognition=20 memory task).

Although these results provide converging evidence for the notion of = self as=20 a social prototype, it should be noted that the effects obtained for the = self=20 may also occur for familiar others. For instance, processing information = with=20 reference to familiar others does facilitate memory ( Bow= er &=20 Gilligan, 1979 ), and the effect increases as a positive function of = the=20 other person's familiarity ( Ke= enan=20 & Baillet, 1980 ; Ku= iper=20 & Rogers, 1979 ). This suggests that even though the self may = well be=20 the largest and perhaps the most powerful social prototype ( Ro= gers,=20 1981 ), it is not the only one and that cognitive representations of = familiar others function in a similar way (cf. Hig= gins=20 & Bargh, 1987 ; Ki= hlstrom=20 et al., 1988 ).

Habitual Reference Points

Cognitive prototypes are involved in processing and interpreting = incoming=20 information by serving as habitual reference points ( Ho= lyoak=20 & Mah, 1982 ). There is extensive experimental evidence that = people=20 habitually use prototypes as points of reference in a variety of = nonsocial=20 judgments, including judgments of number magnitude ( Hol= yoak,=20 1978 ), vertical position ( L.= B.=20 Smith, Cooley, & McCord, 1986 ), color ( Ro= sch, 1975=20 ; Su= n, 1983=20 ), and geographic distance ( Ho= lyoak=20 & Mah, 1982 ; Sa= dalla,=20 Burroughs, & Staplin, 1980 ).

In the social domain, several lines of research provide converging = evidence=20 consistent with the view that self plays an important role in the = perception of=20 others. This includes research on attitudinal assimilation=97contrast = effects ( Ho= vland=20 & Sherif, 1952 ), attributive projection ( Hol= mes, 1968=20 ), and false consensus ( Ro= ss,=20 Greene, & House, 1977 ; see also Ma= rks &=20 Miller, 1987 , for a review). In the information processing = paradigm,=20 interesting evidence for this view comes from the already cited study by = Ku= iper=20 (1981) , who found that not only self-referent judgments but also=20 other-referent judgments were faster on self-prototypical compared to=20 non-self-prototypical traits. This strongly suggests the involvement of=20 self-prototypes in the perception of others.

Not only does our self-knowledge influence how we perceive others, = but the=20 reverse is also true. The impact of our perceptions of others on how we = see=20 ourselves has been addressed in a long tradition of research stemming = from=20 social comparison theory ( Fes= tinger,=20 1954 ; Su= ls &=20 Miller, 1977 ) and from various theories of identification ( Ban= dura,=20 1969 ; Fre= ud, 1921=20 ; Se= ars, Rau,=20 & Alpert, 1965 ). In a similar vein, recent work by Mc= Guire and=20 McGuire (1988) on the spontaneous self-concept in children indicates = that=20 information concerning significant others (parents, siblings, teachers, = and=20 peers) may constitute an integral part of the self-concept. In addition, = which=20 aspects of the self are salient in a given social context depends on the = personal distinctiveness of an individual in that context ( Mc= Guire=20 & McGuire, 1981 , 19= 88 ;=20 Mc= Guire,=20 McGuire, Child, & Fujioka, 1978 ; see also Tv= ersky=20 & Gati, 1978 ). For instance, a Polish psychologist in a group = of=20 American psychologists is likely to focus on his or her nationality, but = the=20 same person in a group of Polish physicians is likely to focus on his or = her=20 profession.

In the present experiments I examined the prototypical nature of=20 self-knowledge and knowledge about familiar others in the context of=20 interpersonal similarity judgments. The notion of self as a habitual = reference=20 point implies that others are often perceived in terms of their = similarity to=20 and differences from the self and that self-prototypical characteristics = are the=20 most likely to be involved in such comparisons. For instance, if being=20 physically fit (or unfit) constitutes one of my self-prototypical=20 characteristics, then I am likely to think about other people's levels = of=20 physical fitness in comparison to my own. This tendency to think about = others in=20 comparison with the self as defined by self-prototypical characteristics = is=20 likely to make such comparisons increasingly easy to make. The more = frequently I=20 use the fitness-related information about myself as a point of = comparison in=20 processing information about others, the easier and faster will such = comparisons=20 be made in the future. This is likely to occur because of the increased = strength=20 of the associations between fitness-related information about the self = and=20 others, the increased effectiveness of the computational processes = involved in=20 such comparisons, and finally, the possibility of retrieving the results = of=20 previous computations involving the same (or similar) person or persons = and the=20 same (or related) characteristics.

The same reasoning applies to the notion that cognitive = representations of=20 specific others can serve as habitual reference points in processing = information=20 about the self. If I think of John as a prototypically shy person, then = in=20 considering my own shyness or lack of it (and, perhaps, also in = considering my=20 other shyness-related characteristics) I am likely to see myself in = comparison=20 to John. If I make such comparisons often enough, they will become = increasingly=20 effortless and fast. As in the case of judgments involving = self-prototypical=20 characteristics, this is likely to happen because of the increased = strength of=20 the associations between trait-related information about self and = others, the=20 increased effectiveness of computing, and the possibility of retrieval = of=20 previous computations. Self=97other similarity judgments involving=20 self-prototypical or other-prototypical traits should therefore be = faster than=20 judgments involving traits for which neither the self nor the other = person is a=20 prototype (neither-prototypical traits).

One advantage of relying on the latencies of similarity judgments = rather than=20 on the latencies of self-referent or other-referent decisions is that it = helps=20 to alleviate a methodological problem present in earlier studies ( Ku= iper,=20 1981 ; Mu= eller et=20 al., 1986 ; Ro= gers,=20 1974 , 19= 78 ).=20 In those studies, the comparison between self-referent decisions = involving=20 self-prototypical and non-self-prototypical characteristics was = inherently=20 confounded by the fact that different adjectives were used in the two = sets. Any=20 comparison between other-referent decisions made with respect to=20 highly-other-descriptive and non-highly-other-descriptive = characteristics would=20 be similarly confounded. Although the use of similarity judgments does = not solve=20 the problem of comparing self-prototypical and non-self-prototypical = traits, it=20 allows for a nonconfounded comparison between other-prototypical and=20 non-other-prototypical ones. For instance, if Paul is a prototype of a = polite=20 person and Greg is a prototype of a generous person, then the questions = "How=20 similar are you to Paul in politeness?" and "How similar are you to Greg = in=20 generosity?" use other-prototypical traits, and the questions "How = similar are=20 you to Paul in generosity?" and "How similar are you to Greg in = politeness?" use=20 traits that are not prototypical of the target person. Yet, across = questions,=20 the same trait names (and the same proper names) are used in the two = sets. If=20 the reaction times prove to be faster not only for self-prototypical but = also=20 for other-prototypical judgments (as compared to neither-prototypical) = this=20 would provide additional evidence for the interpretation of such = findings in=20 terms of trait prototypicality. This is based on the assumption that the = same=20 basic principles apply to the information-processing phenomena involving = the=20 self and those involving cognitive representations of familiar others = (cf. Hig= gins=20 & Bargh, 1987 ; Ki= hlstrom=20 et al., 1988 ).

So far we have considered the role of the habitual reference points = in=20 similarity judgments regardless of transient reference points. The = distinction=20 between habitual and transient reference points ( Ho= lyoak=20 & Mah, 1982 ) is based on the observation that the reference = point in=20 similarity judgments is determined not only by which of the two objects = of=20 comparison is more prototypical with respect to a given dimension, but = also by=20 the syntactic form of the question asked. For example, the question "How = similar=20 are you to John in politeness?" asks about the degree of similarity = between self=20 and John and establishes John as a transient reference point. On the = other hand,=20 the question "How similar is John to you in politeness?" concerns the = degree of=20 similarity between John and the self and designates self as a transient=20 reference point.

The two kinds of reference points are not independent of each other.=20 Psycholinguistic studies (e.g., Ko= gan,=20 Chadrow, & Harbour, 1989 ; Or= tony,=20 Vondruska, Foss, & Jones, 1985 ; M.= K.=20 Smith, Pollio, & Pitts, 1981 ) show that when people are free to = decide=20 which of the two elements included in a comparison should serve as a = (transient)=20 reference point, they tend to choose the one that is more familiar, = better=20 understood, and more salient with respect to the category in question = and=20 therefore more likely to be habitually used as a point of reference. For = instance, we would be more likely to say (or to think) that the harsh = voice of a=20 little-known jazz vocalist Johnny So-So is some-what similar to the = voice of=20 Louis Armstrong than the other way around.

Recent studies have shown that the choice of which of the two objects = of=20 comparison serves as a transient reference point influences the degree = of=20 perceived similarity between the two objects. For instance, in the area = of=20 interpersonal similarity, people tend to perceive greater similarity = between=20 others and self than between self and others ( Cod= ol, 1987=20 ; Hol= yoak=20 & Gordon, 1983 ; Ka= rylowski,=20 1989 ; Sr= ull &=20 Gaelick, 1983 ). This asymmetry effect in self=97other similarity = judgments is=20 consistent with the notion of self as a habitual reference point: = Similar=20 effects have been found for habitual reference points outside of the = social=20 domain ( Ro= sch, 1975=20 ; Sa= dalla et=20 al., 1980 ; see also Ho= lyoak=20 & Mah, 1982 ). However, both Hol= yoak and=20 Gordon (1983) and Sr= ull and=20 Gaelick (1983) noted that the asymmetry effect can also be explained = in=20 terms of Tv= ersky's=20 (1977 ; Tv= ersky=20 & Gati, 1978) feature-matching model of similarity judgments. = This=20 latter interpretation does not require the assumption that self actually = functions as a habitual point of reference in the perception of others = but only=20 the more modest assumption that it represents a highly articulated = concept=20 defined by a large number of features. Finally, Cod= ol (1987)=20 proposed a motivational explanation based on the notion that people = have a=20 need to feel unique ( Ja= rymowicz=20 & Codol, 1979 ; Sn= yder=20 & Fromkin, 1980 ) and that perception of self as being similar = to others=20 is more threatening to one's sense of uniqueness than perception of = others as=20 being similar to the self. Regardless of the explanation, the = asymmetrical=20 character of self=97other and other=97self similarity judgments = indicates that the=20 two types of comparisons are psychologically different.

The distinction between habitual and transient reference points leads = to more=20 specific predictions concerning latencies of similarity judgments. The = notion=20 that self is habitually used as a reference point in the perception of = others=20 along self-prototypical dimensions implies an extensive practice in = comparing=20 others to the self (rather than the self to others) when making = judgments along=20 such dimensions. What follows is that self=97other similarity judgments = involving=20 self-prototypical traits should be faster when the self rather than the = other=20 person serves as a transient reference point ("How similar is X = to=20 you...?" questions). Similarly, habitual use of specific others as = reference=20 points in the perception of self along other-prototypical dimensions = implies an=20 extensive practice in comparing self to others (rather than others to = self) when=20 making judgments involving other-prototypical traits. This, in turn, = should lead=20 to similarity judgments involving such traits' being faster when the = other=20 person, rather than the self, serves as a transient reference point = ("How=20 similar are you to X ...?" questions). As a result, the advantage = of=20 self-prototypical (compared to neither-prototypical) traits should be = greater in=20 the case of questions that establish the self as a transient reference = point,=20 that is, in "How similar is (Person X ) to you...?" questions. = However,=20 the advantage of other-prototypical traits should be greater in the case = of=20 questions that establish the other person as a transient reference = point, that=20 is, in "How similar are you to (Person X )...?" questions.

Experiment 1

Method Subjects

A total of 63 University of North Florida undergraduates participated = in the=20 experiment in return for extra course credit. Data from 3 subjects were = excluded=20 from the analysis because they did not follow instructions in providing = the=20 self-prototypical and other-prototypical traits needed to generate = similarity=20 questions. Subjects participated in groups ranging from 3 to 20 = participants.=20

Procedure

Each subject was seated in front of an Apple II microcomputer and = asked to=20 follow instructions that appeared on the screen. The preliminary task = consisted=20 of a series of questions intended to gather information regarding=20 self-prototypical and other-prototypical traits. This was immediately = followed=20 by a similarity judgment task.

Preliminary task.

Subjects were asked to provide the following information: (a) to name = their=20 most and second most characteristic personality trait, (b) to give the = names of=20 one person of the same sex and one person of the opposite sex whom they = knew=20 very well and to list for each of those two people their most and second = most=20 characteristic personality trait, and (c) to give the names of persons = whom they=20 knew who exemplified the standard traits of independence, = persistence,=20 out-goingness, adventurousness, and politeness. 1=20 The subjects were asked not to enter the same name = or the=20 same trait more than once.

Similarity-judgments task.

The subjects were then asked to make self=97other and other=97self = similarity=20 judgments involving the seven persons named in response to the = preliminary task=20 questions. The 42 experimental trials of the similarity-judgments task=20 constituted a completely balanced 2 =D7 3 =D7 7 (Question Form =D7 Trait = Prototypicality =D7 Person) within-subjects factorial design. Twenty-one = of the=20 trials consisted of questions in the form of "How similar is ( Person = X )=20 to you in ( Trait Y )?", and the remaining 21 trials consisted of = questions in the form of "How similar are you to ( Person X ) in = (=20 Trait Y )?". The trait prototypicality and person variables were=20 manipulated in an idiographic manner on the basis of subjects' responses = to the=20 preliminary task questions. One third of the trials involved = self-prototypical=20 traits, one third involved other-prototypical traits, and one third = involved=20 traits on which neither the self nor the other was a prototype. In = addition, one=20 seventh of the trials involved each of the seven persons named by the = subject in=20 response to the preliminary task questions.

All of the questions in the self-prototypical trials used the trait = named by=20 each subject as the most characteristic personality trait of the self. = 2=20 The questions in the other-prototypical and in the=20 neither-prototypical trials used the same set of seven trait names. That = set=20 consisted of a trait named as the most characteristic trait of the = highly=20 familiar same-sex person, a trait named as the most characteristic trait = of the=20 highly familiar opposite-sex person, and the five standard traits for = which=20 exemplars were named during the preliminary task. In the case of=20 other-prototypical trials, there was always a match between the trait = and the=20 person (other than the self) involved in the similarity judgment. For = instance,=20 if same-sex friend Joe was assigned the trait of joyfulness as his most=20 characteristic personality trait and Adam was named as a person = exemplifying the=20 trait of adventurousness, then trials requiring judgments of similarity = between=20 Joe and the self (or the self and Joe) with respect to joyfulness and = trials=20 requiring judgments of similarity between Adam and the self (or the self = and=20 Adam) with respect to adventurousness would be considered = other-prototypical.=20 The neither-prototypical trials, on the other hand, always involved a = nonmatch.=20 For instance, trials requiring judgments of similarity between Joe and = the self=20 (or the self and Joe) in adventurousness and trials requiring judgments = of=20 similarity between Adam and the self (or the self and Adam) in = joyfulness would=20 be considered neither-prototypical (neither the self nor the other = person=20 involved in the judgment is a prototype of the trait). Note that the = number of=20 possible nonmatching combinations of traits and persons was 42 rather = than the 7=20 combinations required by the design. The seven nonmatching combinations = used in=20 the neither-prototypical trials were selected in such a way that the=20 other-prototypical and the neither-prototypical trials involved the same = traits=20 and the same persons (in different combinations). The order of questions = in the=20 experimental trials was counterbalanced across subjects.

The experimental trials were preceded by six unannounced practice = trials.=20 Each of the practice trials used a different combination of the two = levels of=20 the question-form variable and the three levels of the = trait-prototypicality=20 variable. The two self-prototypical trials used traits named by the = subjects as=20 their second most characteristic personality traits, whereas the two=20 other-prototypical trials used traits named as the second most = characteristic=20 traits of the two highly familiar others. The two neither-prototypical = trials=20 used nonmatching combinations of traits and persons, selected from among = nonmatching combinations that were not included in the experimental = trials. Each=20 trial involved a different person from among the seven persons named by = the=20 subject in the preliminary task.

Each of the 48 trials consisted of a single similarity question = presented on=20 the screen of a computer monitor. Judgments were made by pressing one of = the=20 numerical keys (1 through 9) on the computer key pad. Subjects were = asked to use=20 a 9-point scale that ranged from very different (1) to very = similar=20 (9). The scale was present on the screen at all times. Pressing any = of the=20 response keys resulted in the termination of the display (except for the = scale)=20 and was immediately followed by the next trial. Response latencies were = recorded=20 by a software clock.

Results and Discussion

Responses with latencies shorter than 1 s, the time considered = necessary for=20 reading and comprehension of similarity questions, were treated as = missing (1.2%=20 of all responses). Also, latencies over 15 s (3.0% of all responses) = were=20 truncated to that value. To avoid using measures based on a single = response, the=20 data for each subject were collapsed across the person category. This = resulted=20 in reducing the 42 latencies to six indices reflecting the 3 =D7 2 = (Trait=20 Prototypicality =D7 Question Form) within-subject design.

A comparison of mean latencies for the six categories of judgments is = presented in F= igure 1=20 . A 2 =D7 3 (Question Form =D7 Trait Prototypicality) = within-subjects analysis=20 of variance ( ANOVA ) performed on latencies = revealed a=20 main effect of trait prototypicality, F (2, 118) =3D 10.71, p = <=20 .0001. As expected, similarity judgments involving self-prototypical = traits and=20 similarity judgments involving other-prototypical traits were = significantly=20 faster than judgments involving neither-prototypical traits: F = (1, 59) =3D=20 19.99, p < .0001, and F (1, 59) =3D 10.38, p = < .005,=20 respectively.

The main effect of the question form was not significant, F = (1, 59)=20 < 1. However, as predicted, both the overall interaction between = trait=20 prototypicality and question form and the partial interaction between=20 self-prototypical versus other-prototypical contrast and question form = were=20 significant: F (2, 118) =3D 4.12, p < .02, and F = (1, 59) =3D=20 7.43, p < .01, respectively. To further clarify the meaning of = the=20 overall interaction, two additional partial interactions were computed. =

The partial interaction between question form and the = other-prototypical=20 versus neither-prototypical contrast was significant, F (1, 59) = =3D 5.59,=20 p < .05. As predicted, judgments involving other-prototypical = traits=20 were significantly faster for other-as-a-referent questions than for=20 self-as-a-referent questions, F (1, 59) =3D 6.60, p < = .02.=20 However, judgments involving neither-prototypical traits were not = affected by=20 the question form, F (1, 59) < 1. Similarly, the facilitating = effect=20 of other-prototypical (compared to neither-prototypical) traits occurred = for=20 other-as-a-referent questions, F (1, 59) =3D 16.87, p < = .0001,=20 but not for self-as-a-referent questions, F (1, 59) =3D 1.35, = ns.=20

The partial interaction between question form and the = self-prototypical=20 versus neither-prototypical contrast was not significant, F (1, = 59) <=20 1. Contrary to predictions, judgments involving self-prototypical traits = were=20 not significantly affected by the question form, F (1, 59) =3D = 1.35,=20 although there was a slight tendency in the predicted direction. = Consequently,=20 the facilitating effect of self-prototypical (compared to = neither-prototypical)=20 traits occurred for both self-as-a-referent and other-as-a-referent = questions:=20 F (1, 59) =3D 11.77, p < .001, and F (1, 59) =3D = 12.45, p=20 < .001, respectively.

These results are consistent with the notion that both self and = cognitive=20 representations of specific others serve as habitual reference points. = However,=20 the fact that the advantage of self-prototypical as compared to=20 neither-prototypical traits occurred regardless of the question form = suggests a=20 somewhat special status of self as a particularly powerful reference = point that=20 is not easily affected by linguistic factors.

Although the main focus in this article is on latencies, an = additional=20 analysis involving judgment data was also conducted. Surprisingly, a 2 = =D7 3=20 (Question Form =D7 Trait Prototypicality) within-subjects = ANOVA=20 performed on similarity judgments did not reveal a main = effect of the=20 question form found in earlier studies, F (1, 58) < 1. The = only=20 significant effect was the main effect of trait prototypicality, F = (2,=20 116) =3D 3.83, p < .05. Similarity judgments involving = self-prototypical=20 traits ( M =3D 6.18) and similarity judgments involving = other-prototypical=20 traits ( M =3D 6.23) were significantly higher than judgments = involving=20 neither-prototypical traits ( M =3D 5.85): F (1, 58) =3D = 4.31, p=20 < .05, and F (1, 58) =3D 8.16, p < .01, = respectively. This=20 pattern of results may suggest that the shorter latencies of judgments = involving=20 self-prototypical and other-prototypical traits were simply due to the = greater=20 perceived similarity involved in such judgments. To evaluate this = possibility, a=20 correlation between similarity judgments and latency of responses was = computed=20 for each subject across the 42 judgments. Because the average = correlation (using=20 z transformation) was only -.11, such = a=20 possibility seems unlikely. 3=20

Because the pattern of interaction for the latency data was not = exactly as=20 expected, a conceptual replication study was conducted. The design of = Experiment=20 2 involved two major modifications. First, to eliminate the possibility = of=20 carryover effects, the question-form variable was manipulated between = subjects.=20 Second, the number of trials involving neither-prototypical traits was = increased=20 so that all nonmatching combinations of the Person =D7 Trait Name matrix = were=20 included. Each trait name used in the experimental trials was, = therefore,=20 involved in the same number of similarity judgments. This eliminated a = potential=20 confounding present in Experiment 1, in which self-prototypical trait = names were=20 used more often than other-prototypical trait names.

Experiment 2

Method Subjects

One hundred thirty-nine University of North Florida undergraduates=20 participated in the experiment in return for extra course credit. = Subjects=20 participated in groups ranging from 3 to 22 participants. =

Procedure

Each subject was seated in front of an IBM PC microcomputer and asked = to=20 follow instructions that appeared on the screen.

Preliminary = task.

The preliminary task was identical to the one in Experiment 1 except = that in=20 the list of five standard traits calmness was substituted for=20 politeness.

Similarity-judgments task.

Each subject made a total of 65 similarity judgments, which included = 8=20 unannounced practice trials and 56 experimental trials. About half (69) = of the=20 randomly assigned subjects made judgments involving self as a subject = ["How=20 similar are you to ( Person X ) in ( Trait Y )" = questions],=20 whereas the remaining 70 subjects made judgments involving other as a = subject=20 ["How similar is ( Person X ) to you in ( Trait Y )?" = questions].=20

The practice trials used traits given by the subject as the second = most=20 characteristic traits of the self and of the two highly familiar others. = Two=20 trials involving self-prototypical traits, two trials involving=20 other-prototypical traits, and four trials involving = neither-prototypical traits=20 were included. Each of the seven persons named by the subject in the = preliminary=20 task was included in at least one practice trial, with one person being = included=20 in two trials.

The experimental trials used all combinations of the 8 =D7 7 matrix = defined by=20 the eight remaining trait names (excluding trait names used in the = practice=20 trials) and the seven persons. This resulted in 7 trials involving=20 self-prototypical traits, 7 trials involving other-prototypical traits, = and 42=20 trials involving neither-prototypical traits. The trials were presented = in a=20 constant semirandom order with the three levels of the trait = prototypicality=20 variable completely counterbalanced across the 56 experimental trials. = All other=20 aspects of procedure were the same as in Experiment 1.

Results = and=20 Discussion

As in Experiment 1, all responses with latencies shorter than 1 s = (0.5%) were=20 considered missing, and latencies over 15 s (2.3%) were truncated to = that value.=20 The data for each subject were collapsed across the person category. =

A comparison of mean latencies for the six categories of judgments is = presented in F= igure 2=20 . The pattern of results closely replicates the results of = Experiment 1. A 2=20 =D7 3 mixedmodel ANOVA with trait prototypicality = as a=20 within-subjects variable and question form as a between-subjects = variable=20 performed on latencies revealed a main effect of trait prototypicality, = F=20 (2, 274) =3D 8.36, p < .0005. The planned comparisons = revealed that=20 similarity judgments involving neither-prototypical traits were = significantly=20 slower than judgments involving self-prototypical traits, F (1, = 137) =3D=20 20.97, p < .0001, and marginally slower than judgments = involving=20 other-prototypical traits, F (1, 137) =3D 2.25, p < = .15).

The main effect of question form was not significant, F (1, = 137) <=20 1, but the interaction between trait prototypicality and question form = was, F=20 (2, 274) =3D 7.20, p < .001. As in Experiment 1, both the = partial=20 interaction between question form and the self-prototypical versus=20 other-prototypical contrast, and the partial interaction between = question form=20 and the other-prototypical versus neither-prototypical contrast were=20 significant: F (1, 137) =3D 9.01, p < .005, and F = (1, 137)=20 =3D 10.52, p < .002, respectively. A similar partial = interaction=20 involving self-prototypical versus neither-prototypical contrast was not = significant, F < 1. Consistent with the results of Experiment = 1,=20 judgments involving other-prototypical traits were significantly faster = for=20 other-as-a-referent questions than for self-as-a-referent questions, = F=20 (1, 137) =3D 5.14, p < .05. However, the latencies of = judgments=20 involving self-prototypical and neither-prototypical traits did not = depend on=20 the question form (both F s < 1). Similarly, the facilitating = effect=20 of other-prototypical (as compared to neither-prototypical) traits = occurred for=20 other-as-a-referent questions, F (1, 68) =3D 11.72, p < = .002, but=20 not for self-as-a-referent questions, F (1, 68) =3D 1.46. = However, the=20 facilitating effect of self-prototypical traits occurred for both=20 self-as-a-referent questions, F (1, 68) =3D 15.78, p < = .0002, and=20 other-as-a-referent questions, F (1, 68) =3D 6.95, p < = .02.

These results, which closely replicate the results of Experiment 1, = strongly=20 suggest that judgments involving self-prototypical traits might be less=20 sensitive to variations in transient reference points than judgments = involving=20 other-prototypical traits. Because in Experiment 2 every trait name was = used in=20 exactly the same number of judgments, we can exclude the possibility = that the=20 results of Experiment 1 were due to self-prototypical trait names being = used=20 much more often than other-prototypical trait names. However, another=20 possibility of the method artifact must be considered. Because in both=20 experiments self-prototypical traits were self-generated whereas most = (five out=20 of seven) other-prototypical traits were not, it is possible that the = difference=20 between the two sets of traits was due to the different proportion of=20 self-generated items. The self-generated traits might, for instance, = have=20 involved stronger trait=97person associations than non-self-generated = (standard)=20 traits.

To evaluate the plausibility of such an alternative interpretation, a = 2=20 (other-prototypical vs. neither-prototypical traits) =D7 2 = (self-generated vs.=20 standard trait names) =D7 2 (self-as-a-referent vs. other-as-a-referent = question=20 form) mixed-model ANOVA was conducted on the = latency data.=20 4=20 This analysis yielded the expected significant = Trait=20 Prototypicality =D7 Question Form interaction, F (1, 137) =3D = 7.26, p=20 < .01, and the marginally significant main effect of trait=20 prototypicality, F (1, 137) =3D 3.40, p < .07. The main = effect of=20 the trait source (self-generated vs. standard) was also marginally = significant,=20 F (1, 137) =3D 3.59, p < .07, with judgments involving=20 self-generated traits being faster ( M =3D -4.646)=20 than judgments involving standard traits ( M =3D 4.887). 5=20 However, and most important, the three-way = interaction was=20 not significant, F (1, 137) < 1. This indicates that the = difference in=20 sensitivity to the question-form manipulation between judgments = involving=20 self-prototypical traits and judgments involving other-prototypical = traits was=20 not because the names of all self-prototypical traits were = self-generated=20 whereas the names of most of the other-prototypical traits were not. No = other=20 significant effects were found. 6=20

As in Experiment 1, an analysis of judgment data was also conducted. = A 3 =D7 2=20 mixed-model ANOVA performed on similarity judgments = revealed a significant effect of trait prototypicality, F (1, = 274.) =3D=20 7.88, p < .002. Similarly as in Experiment 1, judgments = involving=20 neither-prototypical traits were lower ( M =3D 5.68) than = judgments=20 involving self-prototypical traits ( M =3D 6.08), F (1, = 137) =3D=20 13.06, p < .0005, or other-prototypical traits ( M =3D = 6.01),=20 F (1, 137) =3D 17.85, p < .0001. 7=20 The effect of question form was nonsignificant, = F=20 (1, 137) < 1. However, the Trait Prototypicality =D7 Question = Form=20 interaction was marginally significant, F (2, 274) =3D 2.14, p = <=20 .12. To clarify this interaction, simple effects of the question form = variable=20 at the three levels of the trait prototypicality variable were computed. = This=20 analysis revealed that self-as-a-referent questions resulted in greater=20 perceived similarity than other-as-a-referent questions in the case of=20 neither-prototypical traits ( M =3D 5.87 vs. M =3D 5.51), = F (1,=20 137) =3D 4.62, p < .05, but not in the case of = self-prototypical traits=20 ( M =3D 6.04 vs. M =3D 6.12), F (1, 137) < 1, or = otherprototypical traits ( M =3D 6.07 vs. M =3D 5.96), = F =3D (1,=20 137) < 1. This partially replicates results of earlier studies ( Cod= ol, 1987=20 ; Hol= yoak=20 & Gordon, 1983 ; Ka= rylowski,=20 1989 ; Sr= ull &=20 Gaelick, 1983 ) in which greater perceived similarity for = self-as-a-referent=20 questions was found. It also suggests the limited character of such an = effect.=20 However, because the interaction was only marginally significant and = because no=20 similar interaction was found in Experiment 1, this finding may simply = be due to=20 Type I error.

General Discussion

The main purpose of the two experiments was to examine some = implications of=20 the notion that both self and representations of familiar others = function as=20 cognitive prototypes and, as such, are habitually used as reference = points in=20 social information processing. As predicted, self=97other similarity = judgments=20 involving traits that were highly descriptive of either self = (self-prototypical=20 traits) or the other person (other-prototypical traits) were faster than = judgments involving traits that were highly descriptive of neither=20 (neither-prototypical traits). The comparison involving = self-prototypical traits=20 constitutes a conceptual replication of earlier studies that = investigated=20 accessibility of trait-related information depending on = self-prototypicality. As=20 in those earlier studies, this comparison is inherently confounded by = the use of=20 different trait names in the two sets. Such confounding is not present = in the=20 comparison involving other-prototypical traits, however. The fact that = not only=20 judgments involving self-prototypical traits but also (to a somewhat = lesser=20 extent) judgments involving other-prototypical traits were faster than = judgments=20 involving neither-prototypical traits supports the interpretation of the = results=20 in terms of trait prototypicality.

It should be noted, however, that although the faster judgments = involving=20 self-prototypical and other-prototypical traits are consistent with the = notion=20 of self and familiar others as habitual reference points, such results = may also=20 be interpreted outside of the reference point framework. What is = sufficient is a=20 less restrictive assumption of high accessibility of self-prototypical = and=20 other-prototypical traits. It was the interaction hypothesis that = provided a=20 more specific test for the reference point interpretation.

As predicted, the impact of other-prototypical (as compared to=20 neither-prototypical) traits on latencies of similarity judgments was = modified=20 by the semantic form of the question asked. In both studies, the = facilitating=20 effect of other-prototypical traits occurred for questions that = established the=20 other person as a transient reference point ("How similar are you to = Person X=20 ...?" questions) but not for questions that established the self as = a=20 transient reference point ("How similar is Person X to you...?"=20 questions). This result provides evidence for the idea that familiar = others who=20 exemplify specific characteristics are habitually used as reference = points in=20 the perception of self with respect to such characteristics. The = extensive=20 practice of comparing self (serving as a subject of comparison) to = others (who=20 serve as reference points) along other-prototypical dimensions results = in=20 judgments of this kind being relatively easy to make.

The facilitating effect of self-prototypical (as compared to=20 neither-prototypical) traits on judgment latencies did not depend on the = transient reference point as established by the question form. In both = studies,=20 the advantage of self-prototypical traits occurred for both "How similar = are you=20 to X ...?" and "How similar is X to you...?" questions, = and there=20 was not even a trace of an interaction between the self-prototypical = versus=20 neither-prototypical contrast and the question form variable.

The finding that judgments involving self-prototypical traits were = fast=20 regardless of the question form could mean that such fast responses were = due=20 entirely to high accessibility of self-prototypical traits, and that = they had=20 nothing to do with the self as a habitual reference point. In this = respect, the=20 results of the two studies provide more conclusive evidence for familiar = others=20 as habitual reference points (significant interaction) than for the self = as a=20 habitual reference point (main effect only). However, it would be = difficult to=20 think of a theoretical model in which a special status of habitual = reference=20 points could be assumed for representations of familiar others but not = for the=20 self. Such an interpretation of the results regarding judgments = involving=20 self-prototypical traits seems, therefore, unlikely.

A more likely interpretation of those results is that, compared to = other=20 social prototypes, self (as described by self-prototypical = characteristics) is a=20 more rigid reference point that is not easily affected by the semantic = form of=20 the question asked. On a more general level, our results imply a = nonlinear=20 relation between prototypicality of the concepts involved in similarity=20 judgments and the sensitivity of judgment latencies to the question = form. At one=20 extreme are nonprototypical concepts that are not habitually used as = reference=20 points and therefore produce slow judgments regardless of the question = form.=20 This was represented in our experiments by the judgments involving=20 characteristics with respect to which neither the self nor the other = person was=20 a prototype. The other extreme consists of particularly strong, rigid = prototypes=20 that tend to produce quick judgments regardless of whether or not the = transient=20 reference point as implied by the question form and the habitual point = of=20 reference agree. This end of the continuum was represented in our = studies by=20 judgments involving self-prototypical characteristics. It is in the case = of=20 prototypes that lie between the two extremes that the question form = makes a=20 difference, producing faster responses when the two types of reference = points=20 agree. This kind of situation was produced in our experiments by = judgments=20 involving other-prototypical traits.

Such an interpretation is consistent with the results of a study by = Ro= gers,=20 Kuiper, and Rogers (1979, Experiment 2) . Subjects in that study = were=20 presented with pairs of adjectives differing with respect to = independently=20 assessed self-descriptiveness and were asked to make decisions as to = which of a=20 pair of adjectives described them either best or least. The results = showed that=20 responses were faster when the subjects were required to select = adjectives=20 describing them best. However, no semantic congruity effect was found; = that is,=20 there was no interaction between degree of self-descriptiveness and the = type of=20 instruction. Ro= gers et=20 al. (1979) noted that this lack of interaction constituted an = exception from=20 a pattern shown in a number of other studies that found consistent = evidence for=20 the semantic congruity effect using a variety of comparison tasks = involving both=20 nonsocial and social stimuli (see Sr= ull &=20 Gaelick, 1983 , for additional citations). Subjects in such studies = were=20 faster to select the higher (e.g., greater, brighter, more preferred, or = older)=20 of the two stimuli if the stimuli were located in the upper half of the=20 continuum. However, they were relatively faster to select the lower = (e.g.,=20 smaller, dimmer, less preferred, or younger) of the two stimuli if the = stimuli=20 were located in the lower half of the continuum. For instance, in a = typical=20 study involving paired comparison of numbers, subjects needed more time = to=20 answer the question "Which is larger, 2 or 3?" than to answer the = question=20 "Which is larger, 8 or 9?". However, the pattern was reversed for the = "Which is=20 smaller...?" questions: Answering the question "Which is smaller, 2 or = 3?" took=20 less time than answering the "Which is smaller, 8 or 9?" question.

In interpreting their results, Ro= gers et=20 al. (1979) used Hol= yoak's=20 (1978) model of magnitude comparisons. The model assumes that people = compare=20 symbolic stimulus magnitudes with respect to a reference point and that = the=20 choice of a (transient) reference point can be determined by the = question asked.=20 For instance, in comparing digits, the "Which is larger...?" question=20 establishes a reference point at the high end of the scale (closer to = 9),=20 whereas the "Which is smaller...?" question establishes a reference = point at the=20 low end of the scale (closer to 1). Because discriminability of stimuli = is=20 greater in the vicinity of a reference point, the semantic congruity = effect=20 occurs. Ro= gers et=20 al. (1979) claimed that the reason the symbolic distance effect does = not=20 occur for self-reference judgments is that the person's view of self = constitutes=20 a habitual point of reference that is particularly powerful and rigid = and,=20 therefore, not easily affected by the instruction. Our results support = such a=20 conclusion and are consistent with the claim that self has a somewhat = special=20 status as a habitual reference point.

Such a special status of the self does not necessarily imply its = uniqueness.=20 It is possible that some other particularly strong or frequently used = prototypes=20 may function in a similarly rigid way. Future studies should explore = this issue=20 by looking at the relation between the impact of transient reference = points on=20 the latency of judgments depending on various characteristics of the = prototypes=20 involved, including their elaboration, salience, and frequency of use. =

Although the focus of this article is on latencies of similarity = judgments=20 and not on the judgments themselves, the failure to consistently = replicate=20 results of earlier studies regarding the asymmetry effect in = self=97other=20 similarity judgments needs to be addressed. At a conceptual level, one = could=20 argue that both Tv= ersky's=20 (1977 ; Tv= ersky=20 & Gati, 1978) feature-matching model and Cod= ol's=20 (1987) motivational model predict asymmetry mainly for judgments of=20 similarity "in general"=96that is, when no dimension is specified = (Karylowski, in=20 press). However, at least two studies in which the asymmetry effect was = found (=20 Hol= yoak=20 & Gordon, 1983 , Experiment 1; Ka= rylowski,=20 1989 ) used judgments similar to the ones used in the present = studies =96that=20 is, involving specific personality characteristics. One possibility is = that the=20 critical difference between the present studies and those earlier = studies in=20 which the asymmetry effect was found is that the present instructions = emphasized=20 speed rather than accuracy of judgments. Perhaps when subjects try to = work as=20 fast as possible, subtle differences in judgment content due to question = form=20 are more difficult to detect. More important, even when the asymmetry = effect in=20 judgment content is found ( Hol= yoak=20 & Gordon, 1983 ; Ka= rylowski,=20 1989 ; Sr= ull &=20 Gaelick, 1983 ), its interpretation in terms of habitual reference = points is=20 somewhat problematic because of the possibility of alternative = interpretations=20 in terms of Tv= ersky's=20 (1977 ; Tv= ersky=20 & Gati, 1978) feature-matching model or Cod= ol's=20 (1987) motivational model. In this respect, the use of latency data = offers=20 an important advantage because neither of those two alternative = interpretations=20 would lead to the predictions tested (and largely confirmed) in the = present=20 experiments.

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The standard traits were selected from the list compiled by Ro= thbart=20 and Park (1986) . Each trait scored above average with respect to = frequency,=20 favorability, and confirmability.

This was based on the assumption that prototypical attributes of an = object=20 (self or other) are likely to be seen as the most characteristic = attributes of=20 that object (cf. Ro= sch, 1978=20 ).

To refute the possibility of such an artifact even further, latency = data were=20 reanalyzed using scores adjusted for perceived similarity (residuals). = All=20 findings of the original ANOVA were replicated. =

As in the original analysis, qustions involving other-prototypical = and=20 neither-prototypical traits used the same trait names and the same = persons (in=20 different combinations). A similar reanalysis of data from Experiment 1 = was not=20 possible because the set of qustions involving neither-prototypical = traits did=20 not include all combinations of trait names and person names required to = perform=20 such analysis.

Because judgments involving self-generated trait names and judgments=20 involving standard trait names included in this analysis were made with = respect=20 to two different sets of characters, the meaning of this finding is = unclear.=20 However, an additional 2 (question form) =D7 2 (self-generated vs. = standard trait=20 names mixed-model ANOVA performed on the complete = set of=20 judgments invlving neither-prototypical traits revealed a significant = main=20 effect of the type of trait name variable, F (1, 137) =3D 5.34, = p=20 < .05, thus providing nonconfounded evidence that judgments = invlving=20 self-generated traits were faster ( M =3D 4.724) than judgments = involving=20 standard trait names ( M =3D 4.919).

6 =

Another possibility of an artificat is that answering questions in = the=20 preliminary task temporarily increased the accessibilityt of = person=97trait=20 associations for self-prototypical and traits and that this was = responsible for=20 faster judgments invlving such traits. To evaluate this possibility, the = latency=20 scores were recomputed for the first 27 and the last 27 judgments = separately.=20 Because any effects due to increased accessibility would occur primarily = during=20 the early trials of the similarity judgments task, such an = interpretation=20 implies one or more interactions involving the timing variable. A 3 =D7 = 2 =D7 2=20 (Trait Prototypicality =D7 Timing =D7 Question Form) ANOVA=20 revealed, in addition to confirming the results of th = original=20 analysis, a highly significant main efect of timing, F (1, 137) = =3D 59.01,=20 p < .0001, with the first 27 judgments taking longer ( M = =3D=20 5.006) than the last 27 judgments ( M =3D 4.293). However, no = interaction=20 involing the timing variable appraoched significance (all p s = > .25),=20 which speaks against the possibility of any of the results of the = original=20 analysis being due to the nature of the preliminary task. (A similar = reanalysis=20 of data from Experiment 1 was not conducted because matching judgments = differing=20 in the question form were often made during two different segments of = the=20 similarity judgment task.)

As in Experiment 1, reanalysis of latency data was performed on = scores=20 adjusted for perceived similarity (the average correlation between = similarity=20 judgments and latency of responses was -.10). = All of=20 the effects found in the original analysis were replicated, thus = speaking=20 against the possibility that shorter latencies of self-prototypical and=20 other-prototypical judgments were due to greater perceived similarity. =

Preparation of this article was supported by awards from the = University of=20 North Florida Faculty Development Fund.
Preliminary results were = presented=20 during the 34th Annual Meeting of the Southeastern Psychological = Association,=20 March 1988, and during the 96th Annual Convention of the American = Psychological=20 Association, August 1988.
I am indebted to Linda A. Foley, Russell = A. Jones,=20 Chris Leone, and anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.=20
Correspondence may be addressed to Jerzy J. = Karylowski,=20 Department of Psychology, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, = Florida,=20 32216.
Received: April 3, 1989 =
Revised: December=20 14, 1989
Accepted: December 28, 1989

Figure 1. Latencies of similarity judgments as a = function of=20 trait prototypicality and question form in Experiment 1.

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Figure 2. Latencies of similarity judgments as a function of = trait=20 prototypicality and question form in Experiment 2.

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